Solution to Global Warming (Part 21)

Another vital piece of information learned from “Last Chance For Chance” is the fact that the presence of abundant decayed matter in the ocean allows certain species of bacteria to feed on and at the same time consume almost all the dissolved oxygen that in effect transform the entire area as the Dead Zone that no organism would survive. This gave us the idea why a certain group who damped urea in Zulu Sea was advised not to continue their experiment because otherwise the whole area would be transformed into a Dead Zone.

The third highly important piece of information learned from “Last Chance for Change” is the idea that the presence of Sulfur Dioxide “SO2” in the atmosphere reflects substantial amount of Solar Radiation into Outer Space. The MOUNT PINATUBO eruption in December 25, 1991 expelled 3 billion tons of lahars within the radius of as far as 100 kilometer and 20 million tons of Sulfur Dioxide “SO2” that soured to the height of 11 Km to 19 Km spread all over the Earth’s Atmosphere was found to have caused the lowering of earth’s temperature by 0.25 0C for more than two years. According to scientists, SO2 has the ability to reflect Sunlight efficiently than other gases. If that is the case, this Author suggests that in case Global Warming comes to its worst an optimum amount of SO2 be sent to the Ozone Layer where the earth’s magnetism will hold it there for a number of years until the earth cools down to the right temperature.

As soon as the right temperature on the surface of the earth is attained, the SO2 shall be eliminated by sending equivalent amount of Sodium Hydroxide “NaOH” solution to which it will react and fall as Sodium Sulfate “Na2SO4” The earth magnetic field is located at the altitude of 45 kilometers.

12.2 EFFORTS UNDERTAKEN WORLDWIDE TO SOLVE GLOBAL WARMING

• 1957, Roger Reville & Hans Suess Began to continuously study the earth following the occasion of the Geophysical Year of 1957 at the Mauna Lua Observatory located at 3,300 meter high in Hawaii,
• 1975, First World Climate Conference by United Nation in Geneva, Switzerland
• 1975, World Meteorological Organization sponsored a Conference on Climatic Fluctuation.
• 1975, Understanding Climate Change “A Program of Action sponsored by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences
• 1975, First World Climate Change Conference held in Geneva, Switzerland.
• 1985, Conference on Climate Change
• 1987, Conference on Climate Change
• 1988, Inter-government Panel on Climate Change Conference
• 1988, “The Changing Atmosphere Implication For Global Security” held in Toronto participated by 48 Countries
• 1992, Montreal Summit on Biodiversity Convention in Canada
• 1992, Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro came up with “Agenda 21” to limit atmospheric gases
• 1995, First Conference of Parties “COP” held yearly in Berlin, Germany
• 1997, June 24 UN Earth Summit Plus Five Conferences. !87 Countries participated to review the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit held in 1992.
• : 1997, Dec.11. Kyoto Protocol Conference addressed by Hiroshi Oki, Japanese Environment Minister
• 2001, The STERN Report
• 2002, Word Summit on Sustainable Development sponsored by United Nation Environmental Protection held in Johannesburg, South Africa
• 2003, Kyoto Protocol Meeting where 120 Countries signed the accord
• 2003 Carbon Credit in Chicago as the First
• 2003 Carbon Credit in London as the Second
• 2004, IPCC Desertification Convention Held in New Zealand
• 2004, Kyoto Protocol
• 2005, UN Kyoto Protocol: Held in Japan in February 29
• 2005, Montreal Meeting held in Canada
• 2005, Milken Institute Global Conference
• 2006, UN Ice Cap Summit: Held in April
• 2006, Atlanta Environment Summit
• 2007, November, Bali Summit in Indonesia
• 2007, Carbon Credit in China
• 2007, Summit of “G-8” in Helligendam, Germany


12.3 RATE OF INCREASE OF CARBON DIOXIDE CONCENTRATION
YEAR CONCENTRATION Ppm ADDED PER YEAR
1200 – 1250 240.00 ppm – 241.75 ppm 1.75 0.035 ppm
1250 – 1300 241.75 ppm – 243.75 ppm 2.00 0.040 ppm
1300 – 1350 243.75 ppm – 246.00 ppm 2.25 0.045 ppm
1350 – 1400 246.00 ppm – 248.50 ppm 2.50 0.050 ppm
1400 – 1450 248.50 ppm – 251.25 ppm 2.75 0.055 ppm
1450 – 1500 251.25 ppm – 254.25 ppm 3.00 0.060 ppm
1500 – 1550 254.25 ppm – 257.50 ppm 3.25 0.065 ppm
1550 – 1600 257.50 ppm – 261.00 ppm 3.50 0.070 ppm
1600 – 1650 261.00 ppm – 264.75 ppm 3.75 0.075 ppm
1650 – 1700 264.75 ppm – 269.75 ppm 5.00 0.100 ppm
1700 – 1750 269.50 ppm – 276.00 ppm 6.50 0.130 ppm
1750 – 1800 276.00 ppm – 285.00 ppm 9.00 0.180 ppm
1800 – 1850 285.00 ppm – 297.50 ppm 12.25 0.245 ppm
1850 – 1900 297.50 ppm – 315.00 ppm 17.50 0.350 ppm
1900 – 1950 315.00 ppm – 340.00 ppm 25.00 0.500 ppm
1950 – 2000 340.00 ppm – 375.00 ppm 35.00 0.700 ppm

2000 – 2007 375.00 ppm – 389.50 ppm 14.50 2.071 ppm
• 2000 - 2001 Increase 1.50 ppm/year
• 2001 - 2002 Increase 2.08 ppm /year
• 2002 - 2003 Increase 2.54 ppm /year
• 2003 - 2004 Increase 2.00 ppm/year
• 2004 - 2005 Increase 1.50 ppm /year
• 2005 - 2006 Increase 2.60 ppm /year
• 2006 - 2007 Increase 2.28 ppm/year
Total 14.50 ppm

The Signatories of Global Warming Accord in the Kyoto Protocol made the CO2 level of 1990 as the reckoning figure for their targets in emission reduction which took effect in 2005 and to end in 2012. Based on the pledges of the different countries in many parts of the world, it may be summed to a total of eight “8” percent reduction annually.

The total amount of CO2 in the Atmosphere as of 1990 is estimated at 360 Ppm with the average annual increase of 1.5 ppm and presently 2.0 ppm. The reduction by eight “8” per cent on annual emission would only mean that 2..0 ppm will just be reduced to 1.84 ppm per year so that in the next five years in 2012 the total CO2 in the Atmosphere will still be added with 9.2 ppm. Despite of the efforts being made worldwide, the CO2 concentration is expected to increase from the present level of 389.50 ppm to 398.7 ppm by year 2012.



While the effort to reduce CO2 emission pursuant to commitments made in the Kyoto Protocol is significant, it is not enough. It may be considered significant because instead of adding 10 ppm in the absence of such effort only 9.2 ppm would be added and thereby saving 0.80 ppm within the next five years.

The total Agricultural Waste worldwide is estimated at 10.1835 billion tons annually computed at the per capita waste of 4.5 kilogram per person per day. At 60% moisture content it would amount to 4.0734 billion tons. One ton of organic waste when burned would emit 1.543859 tons of CO2 as shown in the following equation:

342 384 528 198
C12H22O11 + 12 O2 = 12 CO2 + 11 H2O

528
CO2 = -------- = 1.5438596491 Kg/Kg of Wood
342

Organic Waste Content = 4.0734 billion tons (1.543859 )
= 6.2887552506 billion tons

6.2887552506 billion tons
Parts per million of Atmosphere = ---------------------------------
4.1417336172185181 x 109 Tons

= 1.518387185 ppm

1.5183871856 ppm
Equivalent Reduction of CO2 Emission = ------------------------------- (100)
2.0 ppm

= 75. 91935928 %

It is therefore recommended that no burning of Agricultural Waste will be allowed worldwide. It is further recommended that Agricultural Waste must be shredded and returned into the soil to retain the nutrients, nurture and propagate the bacteria, increase porosity and hygroscopic property of the soil. Even if the cost of shredding would amount to the equivalent of 7.5 % of the Agricultural Waste, about 1.2 ppm or 60 % of annual CO2 emission would be realized.

The Philippines with a population of 80 million by the middle of 2008 has been estimated to have an annual Agricultural Waste of 131,490,000 tons. If shredding of agricultural waste and the application of such shredded organic materials into the farmlands is estimated to cost P373.25 per ton. Since that one ton of solid waste would emit 1.543859649 tons of CO2, the total cost to save every ton of CO2 would amount to P242.25.

Based on the current price of Carbon Credit of $12.5 or P500.00 per ton, the farmer would make a profit in the amount of P257.15 per ton of agricultural waste that is processed and returned into the soil. Since that a unit of Shredder is estimated to be able to process 4 tons per day, the rice Farmer would be able to make a profit of P1,028.60 per day.

Shredding Rate = 4 tons/day “20 M3” of rice straw /8hrs/day
= 139 Grams/sec “41.7 Liters/Minute

Shredder 5 HP = 1.385 Liters/Hr (8 L/Hr)
= 11.08 Liters/day P40/Liter
= P443.20

Operators = P250.00/day x 2
= P500.00/day

Transport &apply = P250 x 2
= P500.00

Shredder Investment = P30,000/5years/12 months/10 days/month
= P50.00/day

Total Cost = P1,493.20/4tons
= P373.25/ton

One ton of Dry Straw = 1.5438596491 tons of CO2
Total CO2 Saved = 1.5438596491 tons of CO2 (4 tons)
= 6.1754385964 Tons/day
Net CO2 Saving = 6,175.4385964 Kg - 26.77 Kg
= 6,148.6685964 Kg

Cost of CO2 = P1,493.20/6.1486685964 tons
= P242.85/ton

CO2 Emission by Shredder = 11.08 Liters of Crude Oil/day (0.7825 Kg/Liter
= 8.67 Kg (3.0877 KgCO2/Kg Straw
= 26.77 Kg

114 400 352 162
C8H18 + 12.5 O2 = 8 CO2 + 9 H2O
C8 = 96 352
H18 = 18 CO2 = ------- = 3.0877
Total = 114 114

Current Carbon Credit Pricing = $12.5/ton (P40/$
= P500.00/Ton of CO2
Net Profit = P500.00 – P242.85
= P257.15/ton

Profit/day = 257.15 x 4 tons/day
= P1,028.60/day

Return on Investment “Shredder” = P30,000/1,028.60/day
= 29.17 days

A hectare of irrigated Riceland farm is estimated to have a yield of 120 sacks or 6,000 Kg of Palay per harvest season. If the weight of the stalk is three times the weight of Palay, about 18 tons of agricultural waste can be processed per season. If the farmer makes a Carbon Credit of P257.15 per ton, he stand to gain total sales of P4,628.70 per harvest season of P9,257.40 per year for two harvest seasons.

Other than the income out of Carbon Credit, the farmer does not need to apply fertilizer into his farm which would normally cost him as much as P15,000 per year. The Carbon Credit scheme will not only generate an income to the rice farmer but also create employment equivalent to P9,000 per hectare per year.

If we consider 2,500,000 hectares of irrigated farm out of 3,200,000 hectares of Riceland in the Philippines, the amount of Carbon Credit it can generate would amount to P23.1435 billion per year. It would save the farmer from the cost of fertilizer in the amount of P37.5 billion per year and generate employment amounting to P22.5 billion per year.

12.4 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

• Keep temperature rise below 2.0 0C is the necessary point to ascertain that the earth would not reach it tipping point.

PHILIPPINES NORMAL TEMP. CRITICAL POINT
Dry Season Daytime Average: 34 0C 36 0C
Dry Season Nighttime Average 24 0C 26 0C
Wet Season Daytime Average 30 0C 32 0C
Wet Season Nighttime Average 20 0C 22 0C

POLAR REGION NORMAL TEMP. CRITICAL POINT
Daytime Season Average: - 12 0C 0 0C
Nighttime Season Average - 16 0C - 4 0C

• When Global Temperature rise by 2.0 0C plants, insects and animal biodiversity is threatened. Doubling the concentration of CO2 from 375 ppm to 750 ppm is estimated to increase Atmospheric Temperature by 1.5 0C to 4.5 0C.

• In October 2006, it was observed that the ice that melted is three times compared to that of 1996. About 250 Km3 melted per year.

• Bleaching the Coral Reef due high temperature Threatens the Great Barrier Reef

• According to Carol Tualey, head of Plymouth Marine Laboratory, too much absorption of carbon dioxide in sea water may enhance the formation of Carbonic Acid that would render the water devoid of dissolve oxygen and therefore will converts the water not fit for marine life.

• Too much growth of algae that may eventually die will consume oxygen and coverts the area as dead zone.

• There are already countries that group themselves into a coalition to avail Carbon Credit. Example is that of Costa Rica & New Guinea.

• Toyota Prius – A new Car Model of hybrid fuel system was first exhibited on a show on April 16, 2003

• Italy was the first country to install a Geothermal Plant. Today the biggest producer of electric power from Geothermal Plant is the United States with 2,000 Megawatts and followed by the Philippines with 1,900 Megawatts for Second Place.

• Vapor Trail of Passing Aircraft has the effect of reflecting back light radiation that is 2.7 times greater than the effect of CO2.

• Other countries with Geothermal Plants Include:
- Italy - Columbia - South Korea
- Chile - Canada - Indonesia
- Ecuador - Russia - Au8stralia
- Peru - China - New Zealand

• Ice Cap was found to reflect 84% to 90% of Sunlight.

• Seals and Krills in ice region served as food for Penguins

• Mount Kilimanjaro is 5,895 meters in height is covered with ice.

• Drinking water shortage for the past 30 years covers 1.2 million Km2.

• Due to the demand of wood fiber for the production of facial tissues, 1.98 million hectares of forest is lost every year in Ontario Canada.

• During the last 10 years water in the Ocean was found to rise by 2 mm per year or 2 Cm in 10 years.

• Iceberg lost 90 Km3 in 1996 now reached 224 Km3 in 2005.

• Green Land losses 50 Km3 per year from 1995 to 1999.

• The Chemobyl Nuclear Tragedy took place in 1986 at Ukraine, Russia while the Three Mile Nuclear Tragedy took place in 1977 at Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

• CO2 DENSITY PRESENT CRITICAL PT. CRITICAL YEAR
Johnny S. Sumbillo 389.5 ppm 450 ppm 2027 - 2037
Paul Brown 383.0 ppm 400 ppm 2017 – 2027

AREAS THAT WILL BE SUBMERGED DUE TO ONE METER RISE IN SEA LEVEL AFFECT HUNDRED OF MILLIONS
COUNTRIES AFFECTED TOTAL POPULATION
Bangladesh 15,000,000 148,000,000
India 8,000,000
China
Metro Manila 6,000,000
Maldives 300,000

The Great Barrier Reef is threatened with massive distraction due to much higher temperature whereby the coral reef are bleached which means that the polyps that builds the coral reefs have died.

Run away Climate Change is the stage of the Global Condition when the warming process proceeds in uncontrollable and irreversible trend as may attribute to by:

1. When a large portion of the ice cap has melted, the melting tends to continue because ice which reflects 84 % of the sunlight has gone and results to greater absorption of heat and consequently increase the rate of the melting process of ice until everything is gone.
2. When huge amount of methane is unleashed into the atmosphere following the melting of the permafrost, such methane will create a large ozone hole which would results to more heat reaching and being stored on the surface of the earth that eventually hasten the catastrophic event of Global Warming.
3. When the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere reached a critical point, the heat that is trapped will continue to build up on the earth’s surface

Tipping Point is another term for Run Away Climate Change

Methane Increase in 2004 is 1.783 ppm = 155%
N2O Increase in 2004 is 0.3186 ppm = 18%
Compared to Pre-industrial Period in year 1650


TRAGEDIES DUE TO CLIMATE CHANGE
“ WIND”
• Typhoon
• Hurricane
• Tornado
• Tsunami
• Thunderbolt
• HURRICANE KATRINA IN 2005 devastated New Orleans killed 1,300 inhabitants and destroyed $26 billion worth of properties.
•
“WATER”
• Flash Flood
• Inundation
• Land Slide
• Lahars
• Dissertation
• Sahara dust covered arable areas and farmland and transformed them into additional areas of deserts. The new areas of deserts absorbs greater amount of heat
• DANUBE FLOOD : Over flowed by 8 meters over river banks in Romania, Bulgaria, and Serbia..


ALPS GLACIER LOSS 1.0% OF ITS MASS PER YEAR
• PERMAFROST the melting of Permafrost in Serbia is feared to have unleashed 70 billion tons of methane. The boiling point of methane is -161 0C. The northernmost part of Siberia is permafrost which temperature is cold enough to have frozen huge amount of methane. Once this much of methane in unleashed into the atmosphere there would be a crisis in creating ozone hole that could trigger the tipping point of Global Warming. Ozone Holes will allow eight “8” percent more heat from solar radiation if there is no ozone to block such radiation.
• DESERT: The increasing magnitude of the area of the desert in Africa brings about long period of draught that results to sever shortage in supply of food that 11 million out of 184 million African would die of famine in 2006
• RISING SEA: In 1987 United Nation General Assembly, President Mau moon Abdul Gayoom of Maldives warned that a one meter rise in water level of the ocean would mean a death of a nation with 330,000 populations. Maldives is an island located in Indian Ocean.
• Draught in Africa in 2006 endangered 184 million people of famine
• Bangladesh with 148 million populations has one third of its landmass will be under water with the rise of Sea Level.
• Deforestation Worldwide is presently estimated at 16.1 million hectares per year.


“HEAT”
• Heat Wave
• Draught
• Death Record in 2003 European Heat Wave is 49,000 persons
• FOREST FIRE IN CALIFORNIA: NEW MIXICO AND ARIZONA IN
2005 Destroyed 3.58 Million Hectares
• DUST FROM SAHARA DESERT CREATES DRAUGHTS AND HEATWAVE: Affected Countries:
Algeria Italy Greece
Albania Spain Portugal
• Brazil Lost 26,000 Km2 of Forest Cover mainly due to deforestation in Amazon
• European Heat Wave killed 49,000

12.5 CARBON DIOXIDE DEPOSITS,EMISSION & SEQUESTRATION
PERMANENTLY ANNUALLY ANNUALLY
LOCATIONS/SOURCE DEPOSITED EMITTED ABSORBED/SILTED
Annual/Permanent (Gegatons) (Gegatons) (Gegatons)
1. Carbon Dioxide in Atmosphere 1,644.78 ------------ -------------
2. Agricultural Crops 4.75 4.585 6.114
3. Forest, Orchard & Shrubs 623.82 14.347 12.476
4. Grassland/ Grazing Land 29.52 8.856 14.760
5. Dissolved in Ocean Water 1,729.39 3.285 3.458
6. Deposited in Ocean Plant 15.59 2.339 3.119
7. Ocean Bed Silts 77,524.42 0.112 ---------
8. Buried Underground “100 M” 18,194.42 -------- ---------
9. Planktons 2.79 11.811 15.748
10. Zoological Marine Life 2.14 2.344 ---------
11. Corals & Polyps 53.59 -------- 0.001
14. Animal Food Intake/Manure 3.35 2.680 --------
15. Human Food Intake/Excreta 0.67 0.536 --------
16. Animal Breathing -------- 0.600 --------
17. Human Breathing -------- 0.120 --------
18. Liquor Distilleries & Fermentation -------- 0.020 --------
19. Lime stones 1,915.00 -------- --------
20. Sea Shells 4.78 -------- --------
21. Permafrost 4.30 -------- --------
22. Natural Gas --------- 4.172 --------
23. Petroleum --------- 3.885 --------
24. Coal --------- 0.332 --------
25. Wood & Charcoal --------- 4.443 --------
26. Fossil Fuel Underground Deposit 670.40 --------- --------
TOTAL 105,903.38. 64.467 55.676

8.791
D = 8.791 PPM = --------------- = 2.1225 PPM/YR
4.141733.

NATURE PERCENT AREA
Forested 6.50 % 6,240,000 Km2
Orchard Plantation 8.50% 8,160,000 Km2
Shrubs & Bushes 30.750% 29,520,000 Km2
Grassland/Grazing 32.25% 30,960,000 Km2
Grain Production 6.50% 6,240,000 Km2
Vegetable Garden 2.25% 2,160,000 Km2
Root Crops 1.75% 1,680,000 Km2
River and Lakes 2.50% 2,400,000 Km2
Urban Housing&Roads 5.750% 5,520,000 Km2
Open Space/Arid 1.250% 1,200,000 Km2
Total 100.000% 96,000,000 Km2

12.6 MAGNITUDE AND COMPONENT OF THE SUN

The sun is a star nearest to the earth. It has a total mass equal to 1.99 x 1027 Tons and its diameter at 1,380,000 KM. is equivalent to 3.6 times greater than the mean distance between the earth and the moon and/or 108.18 times the diameter of the earth.

The mean distance of the Sun from the earth is 149,500,000 KM which is equal to 108.33 times greater than the diameter of the sun and/or 11,720 times the diameter of the earth.

Volume of Sun = (1,380,000KM/2)2 (3.141582654) (1,380,000KM) (¾)

= 1,548,062,191,759,329,000 KM3
= 1.548062191759329 x 1018 KM3.

1.548062191759329 x 1018 KM3
Ratio of Volumes = --------------------------------------- = 1,272,376 Times
1.21667043591991 x 1012 KM3.

1.99 x 1027 Tons
Solar Density = ------------------------------------------------------
1,548,062,191,759,329,000,000,000,000 M3

= 1.2854 Tons/M3

The mass of the Sun is 332,776 times greater than the mass of the earth shown in the following:
1.99 x 1027 Tons
Ratio of Masses = ---------------------- = 332,776 times
5.98 x 1021 Tons

Material Components of the Sun:

H2 = 92.0 %
He = 6.0 %
Metallic Vapor = 2.0 %
Total 100.0 %

Surface Temperature of the Sun 6,000,000 0C
Inner Temperature of the Sun 42,000,000 0C

Solar light Intensity 100,000 to 120,000 lux

12.6.1 SOLAR RADIATION AND MAGNITUDE OF ITS EMITTED MASS

Area of Earth Exposed to Sun = 127,377,271.123504 KM2
= 1.27377271123504 x 108 KM2

Area of Sphere of Solar Radiation With Intensity Equal to that of Earth

TOTAL ENERGY EMITTED BY THE SUN IN ALL DIRECTIONS

E = 2.652170183293689077223160845 x 1021 Cal. /Day (1.7433158257 x 1010)
= 4. 62357025294852014877 x 1031 Calories

MASS EMITTED BY THE SUN PER DAY

E = MC2
M = E/C2

ONE MILLIGRAM MASS WHEN CONVERTED TO PURE ENERGY
One milligram of mass that is totally converted into pure energy in accordance with Einstein’s Formula ( E = mc2) is equivalent to the heat if and when 2,468.218 liter of Gasoline is burned.

E = MC2

m = 0.000001 Kg
c2 = 9 x 1016.M

E = 0.000001 (9 x 1016)
= 9 x 1010 Joules
= 2.1531 x 1010 Calories



EQUIVALENT LITER OF GASOLINE

2.1531 x 1010 Calories
Liters = ----------------------------- = 2,468.218 Liters
8,723,337 Calories/Liter

Mass in Kg

C = (300,000,000 M/Sec)2 = 9 x 1016 M
E = Joules
Calorie = 4.18 Joules

E = ( 4. 62357025294852014877 x 1031 Calories (4.18 J/Cal).

4. 62357025294852014877 x 1031 Calories (4.18Joule/Calorie)
M = ------------------------------------------------------------------------
9 x 1016.

= 2.147391517480534913539844 X 1015 Kg/Day
= 2.147391517480534913539844 x 1012 Tons/Day
= 2.147391517480534913539844 x 103 KM3/Day
= 2,147 KM3 of Water Weight Equivalent of gasoline/day


MASS ADDED TO THE EARTH FROM THE SUN

2.147391517480534913539844 X 1015 Kg/Day
MASS = ---------------------------------------------------------
1.7433158257 x 1010

= 123,106.8415511 Kg/Day
= 123.1068415511 Tons/Day

Gasoline = 8,723,337 Calories/Liter
= 8.723337 x 109 Calories/M3
= 8.723337 x 109 Calories/M3
= 8.723337 x 1015 Calories/Km3

SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
Proton Mass = 1.672628919233 x 10-24Gm
Neutron Mass = 1.674928767392 x 10-24Gm
Electron Mass = 9.380981038889 x 10-28Gm



PAGE 249


Major Volcanic Eruptions Since 1900
Volcano Location Year Deaths*
Santa María Guatemala 1902 1,500
Pelée Martinique 1902 29,000
Taal Philippines 1911 1,335
Kelut, Java Indonesia 1919 5,110
Merapi Indonesia 1930 1,369
Rabaul Caldera Papua New Guinea 1937 507
Lamington Papua New Guinea 1951 2,942
Hibok Hibok Philippines 1951 >500
Agung Indonesia 1963 1,148
St. Helens United States 1980 57
El Chichón Mexico 1982 >2,000
Nevado del Ruiz Colombia 1985 23,000
Lake Nyos Cameroon 1986 1,700
Pinatubo Luzon, Philippines 1991- 1996 800
Unzen Japan 1991 39
Mayon Philippines 1993 70