Solution to Global Warming (Part 16)

V. THE ROLE OF THE OCEAN

5.1 THE OCEAN IN MAGNITUDE MARIANAS TRENCH IN PACIFIC OCEAN


MARIANAS TRENCH
DEPTH = 11,000 METERS



The ocean with a total area of 245,374,706.5758 Km2 and average depth of 3.700 kilometers has a total volume of approximately 907,866,414,330.46 Km3. Its area that covers 61.32% of the total surface of the earth does not include the ice in the ice caps that represent about 15.0 % of the earth’s surface which exhibit a distinct characteristics.. The much deeper portion is found in the Pacific Ocean followed by the China Ocean. The deepest is the Marians Trench at the depth of more than 11,000 Meters and followed by the Philippine Trench with the depth of 10,539 Meters that is found at the Eastern side of the island of Mindanao...











SURFACE PERCENT AREA (Km2) RATE EVAPORATION
Ocean 53.57% 214,369,729.35 Km2 4.0000 mm 857.478917 Km3
Island Exc. Des. 23.93% 95,760,082.57 Km2 1.0000 mm 95.760083 Km3
Iceberg 15.00% 60,025,124.89 Km2 0.0010 mm 0.060251 Km3
Dessert 7.50% 30,012,562.44 Km2 0.0020 mm 0.060251 Km3
Total 100.00% 400,167,499.25 Km2 2.3874 mm 955.358997 Km3

Average Daily Evaporation = 955.358997 Km3 (0.31833098861)
= 304.10021356 Km3

5.2 THE SOUTH POLE IS OCCUPIED BY ICE CAP THAT IS 8% OF EARTH SURFACE.



Ocean 245,374,706.5758 Km2
Land 95,768,085.6807 Km2
Ice Cap 60,025,124.8872 Km2
Dessert 30,112,562.4436 Km2
Total 400,167,499.2481 Km2

The weight of water contained in the Ocean is approximately 219.2 times greater than the total the total weight of the atmosphere. The addition of 7.4 M3/Sec will increase the level of the ocean by 95.17 Cm in the next 1,000 years. This rise in the level of the ocean is attributed to water formation which hydrogen component originates from the emitted protons and electron from the exploding stars in outer space.

To raise the temperature all over the ocean by 1.0 0C, the amount of heat that is to be added is equivalent to the heat if and when 106,594 Km3 of gasoline is burned. It is equivalent to all the heat that the earth receives from the sun in 296 days. That is if no heat is reflected into outer space and if no heat is lost due to gas expansion and everything will be deposited into the ocean. The temperature at the bottom of the deep sea in the ocean is almost zero degrees Celsius while surface temperature near the equator as it is in the Philippine averages at 25 0C. If it were not for the heat that comes from the center of the earth which about 0.10 Cal/M2/Sec, the bottom of the ocean would probably be frozen.

5.3 EXPANSION OF WATER IN THE OCEAN

Water in the ocean that occupies approximately 70.88% of the earth’s surface is estimated to have an average depth of 3,700 meters.

WATER: DENSITY VOLUME RISE OF H2O
TEMPERATUR
20 0C 0.998200 1.001800 Present Level
20.20 0C 0.998132 1.001871 0.2627 M
20.40 0C 0.998064 1.001939 0.5143 M
20.60 0C 0.997997 1.002007 0.7659 M
20.80 0C 0.997930 1.002074 1.0138 M
21.00 0C 0.997862 1.002142 1.2654 M
22.00 0C 0.997524 1.002482 2.5234 M
23.00 0C 0.997187 1.002821 3.7777 M
24.00 0C 0.996849 1.003161 5.0357 M
25.00 0C 0.996512 1.003500 6.2900 M

25 0C 0.996512 1.003500 6.2900 M
30 0C 0.995024 1.005000 11.8400 M
35 0C 0.992556 1.007499 21.0893 M
40 0C 0.991572 1.008499 24.7863 M
45 0C 0.988142 1.012000 37.7411 M
50 0C 0.986680 1.013499 43.2894 M
60 0C 0.981354 1.019000 63.6400 M
70 0C 0.975610 1.024999 85.8363 M
80 0C 0.968992 1.032000 111.7409 M
90 0C 0.964329 1.036990 130.2048 M
100 0C 0.957854 1.042276 156.1416 M
WATER DENSITY WAS OBTAINED
(FROM GRANT & HACKH’S CHEMICAL DICTIONARY “PAGE 627”)

In addition to the increase of water level in the ocean brought about by thermal expansion of water, the ice berg will melt and spread all over the world to increase additional height of 6.0 M to 8.0 M.


5.4 PERCENTAGE ABUNDANCE OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

ELEMENTS LITHOSPHERE HYDROSPHERE ATMOSPHERE
1, Oxygen 47.33 85.70 23.02
2. Silicon 27.74 ------ ------
3. Aluminum 7.85 ------ ------
4. Iron 4.50 0.002 ------
5. Calcium 3.47 0.05 ------
6. Sodium 2.46 1.14 ------
7. Potassium 2.46 0.04 ------
8. Magnesium 2.24 0.14 ------
9. Titanium 0.46 ------ ------
10 Hydrogen 0.22 10.67 0.02
11, Carbon 0.19 0.01 0.01
12. Phosphorus 0.12 ------ ------
13. Sulfur 0.12 0.05 ------
14. Manganese 0.08 ------ ------
15. Barium 0.08 ------ ------
16. Fluorine 0.07 ------ ------
17. Chlorine 0.06 2.07 ------
18. Copper 0.03 ------ ------
19. Nitrogen 0.02 0.02 75.53
20. Strontium 0.02 ------ ------
21. Bromine ----- 0.01 ------
22. Iodine ----- 0.006 ------
23. Argon ----- ----- 1.400
24. Krypton ----- ----- 0.010
25. Xenon ----- ----- 0.005
Remainder 0.48 0.005 0.030

CHLOROPHYLL “Chlorophyll a C55H72N4O6Mg
C=CH2 CH3
l H l
C C C
// \ // \ // \
C C C C - CH2 – CH3 Magnesium = I x 24 = 24
\ l l // Carbon = 55 x 12 = 660
C - N N - C Hydrogen = 72 x 1 = 72
/ \ / \ Oxygen = 6 x 16 = 96
HC Mg CH Nitrogen = 4 x 14 = 56
\\ / \ // Total 125 908
CH3 C - N N - C 908
\ / l ll \ Ratio = ------- = 37.83
C C C C - CH2 24
/ \ / \\ / \ //
H H –C C C Only about 2.64% percent of the bulk of Chlorophyll comes
l \\ / from the soil.
H2- C C--H
l ll
H2 - C C – O – O – H
l
O = C
l
O
l
C H3
l
C – CH3OH
L
C = C= H2
/
H2=C
/ \
C = H2
/
H2=C
\
CH – CH2
/
H2 =C
\
C=H3
/
H2- C
\
HC = CH3
/
H2-C – CH2- CH2- CH-CH2


The DNA is very similar to the computer chips that it executes its program under the binary principle of mathematical operation whereby sequential sets of pairs flip flop to determine its next move in the said program. The pairs that construct the helical ladder configuration of protein molecules are formed by:


NUCLEOTIDES OF THE DNA
1. Adenine – Cytosine Adenine - C5H5N5
2. Adenine – Guanine Cytosine - C4H5ON3
3. Adenine – Tyrosine Guanine - C5H5ON5
4. Cytosine – Guanine Tyrosine - HO.C6H4.CH2.CH(CH2)COOH
5. Cytosine – Tyrosine
6. Guanine – Tyrosine


NUCLEOTIDES C = 25 x 12 = 300
Adenine - C5H5N5 H = 25 x 1 = 25
Cytosine - C4H5ON3 O = 5 x 16 = 80
Guanine - C5H5ON5 N = 13 x 14 = 182
Tyrosine - C11H10O3 TOTAL 587


PERCENT NITROGEN = (182/587) (100)
= 31.0051%

Although the DNA may be attributed to as the smallest element of life, it cannot alone by itself exist as an individual form of life. It needs the whole system of the cell to function the way it does as well as the bodily component of the cell to protect its own structure and for the supply of materials it must manipulate and the energy it needs to actuate in every bit of movement or motion that is required. It needs the structure of the protoplasm to include the whole system of the cell membrane. It needs the structure of 42 different types of amino acids to build various structural designs of protein molecules as intermediate building blocks. It needs building blocks of protein to constitute the cell membrane that does not only hold and protect the mass of the cell but to regulate the entry of water or fluid mixture into and out of the cell body.

The foregoing discussion led us to approximate that the body cell is therefore the smallest structural unit of life. For instance the leukocytes or the white blood cell that function as antibody appears to live an independent life and possess an inherent individual sort of consciousness in the same manner as the platelet of the blood because if one gets wounded and blood oozed out through the wound, million of platelets eventually attached one another to block the passage and blood clots to stop the bleeding. Then millions of leukocytes rushed into the site of the wound and to fight foreign bodies to include different types of pathological microorganisms. It is very apparent that they have the consciousness not only where the enemies are but also what to do with the enemies.


PORPHINE DERIVATIVES

CHLOROPHYLL GROUP HEMOGLOBIN GROUP

Etiophyllin C31H34N4Mg Deoteroporphyrin C30H30N4O4
Pyrroporphyrin C31H34N4O2 Deuterohemin C30H28N404FeCl
Rhodoporphyrin C32H34N4O4 Hermin C34H32N4O4FeCl
Phylloporphyrin C32H36N4O2 Hematin C34H32N4O4FeOH
Phylloerethrin C33H34N4O3 Protoporphyrin C34H34N4O4
Chlorophyll a C55H72N4O6Mg Mesohemin C34H36N4O4FeCl
Chlorophyll b C55H70N4O6Mg Hematoporphyrin C34H38N4O6
Mesoporphyrin C34H38N4O4 Coproporphyrin C36H38N4O8
Uroporphyrin C40H38N4O16
Turacin C38H38N4O16




Adenosine Triphosphate
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is the primary energy source found in all living things. ATP fuels most cell activities, including muscle movement, protein synthesis, cell division, and nerve signal transmission. In this computer graphic representation of an ATP molecule, the three phosphate groups are shown in orange. ATP’s chemical energy is stored in its phosphate bonds.
Francis Leroy, Biocosmos/Science Source/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. © 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE “ C10H13N2O3 (PO4)3”

C = 12 X 10 120
H = 1 X 13 13 93
N = 14 X 2 28 Phosphorus = ------ (100) = 18.825%
O = 15 X 16 240 494
P = 31 X 3 93
TOTAL 494


VI. THE ROLE OF SAVANNAH AND TUNDRA

Porcupine Caribou Herd
Part of the huge Porcupine Caribou Herd migrates to the coastal plain in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. Each spring the herd migrates so that females can birth their calves in a region plentiful with food. Environmentalists argue that oil and gas development in the coastal plain threatens to disrupt this natural life cycle.
Tony Dawson/Getty Images
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. © 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.


The Tundra and Savannah areas are large tracts of lands that are usually plain where no trees grow because of very limited annual rainfall ranging from 100 mm to 400 mm compared to the Philippines with the average range of 1,800 mm to 2,600 mm. The difference between the Tundra and Savannah is the fact that Tundra is much cooler than the Savanna that at certain part of the year, the Tundra is covered with snow. The Tundra areas are found mostly at 700 to 750 Latitude while Savannah at 650 to 700.

Only grasses and shrubs thrive in areas known as Tundra so that its utilization is primarily for grazing of indigenous species of animals. During the dry season some portions of these areas get dried and the animals have to travel great distance where to find food. When the grasses become dry, they are usually burned to allow new growth when rain comes during certain part of the year.

The habitants of animals do not only have problems during dry season but they incur another problem where to find food when at the certain part of the year much of the space is covered with snow. Being found near the polar region, the Tundra area is prevalently at low temperature even during its dry season.

In Alaska, about 1.5 million hectares has been declared by the United States government as protected area for wildlife. A large tract of land classified as Tundra in Union Soviet Socialist Republic as well as in Africa has been converted into protected areas for wild animal sanctuaries.

The limited amount of rainfall in land areas classified as Tundra as well as that of Savannah is attributed to the general wind directions and pathways. From 350 Latitude where the Deserts are found, the wind which is devoid of moisture content starts to move towards northwest direction as it gathers some moistures at 350 to 400 Latitudes.

Then again it starts to move in the upward direction where air expansion takes place and subsequent precipitation and rainfall follows. Substantial rainfall is found between the 450 and 650 Latitudes. The Savannah which is located at 650 to 700 Latitude receives limited rainfall because the air lost much of its moisture content between 450 and 650 Latitude. Another point to consider is the much cooler temperature beyond 400 Latitude evaporation as well as smaller capacity of air to hold water vapor. giving it little or minimal

Savanna Biome in Serengeti National Park
Herds of large grazing animals, such as the zebra grazing here in Serengeti National Park in East Africa, are an important element of the savanna biome. Grazing animals and fire keep vegetation to a minimum in savanna areas with high rainfall. Occasional fires burn back old grass and stimulate growth of new grass.
M.P. Kahl/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. © 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

It might be wrong to conclude that the reason why big trees don’t grow in the areas of Tundra and Savannah is due to the fact that there limited rainfall. At 200 mm annual rainfall, there is as much 200 liters per square meter annually and granting that 50% or 100 liters is made to permeate into the soil per square meter of space, it can provide wet soil up to 50 Cm in depth if the soil happens to be a bit porous and hygroscopic.

Annual growth of trees computed at 10.5 grams per M2/day would amount to 3835.125 kg/M2/year. At 60% moisture content it needs 7.67 liters /M2/year the tree intake of water would therefore be equivalent to 7.67 % of the water that has penetrated into the ground. In case a tree would grow in such place with limited rainfall, its roots would provide as passages to allow water to penetrate deeper into the soil.

It may be logical to suspect that the reason why big trees do not grow in places near the Polar Region is because of limited density of Carbon Dioxide. It may be observed that there are no big trees on top of high mountains because of limited density of Carbon Dioxide. This is brought about by the fact that Carbon Dioxide being heavier is more concentrated at lower level and less concentrated at high altitude. Every time the wind blows toward the equator, it is moving along the path at lower elevation and every time it is blowing towards the Polar Region it is moving through the path in upward direction. Air reaches as high as five kilometer to ten kilometers high before it begins to descent.

The concentration of Carbon Dioxide reaching this height is lesser and therefore there is a need to verify by laboratory analysis to prove that the Density of Carbon Dioxide near the equator is higher than that that of the Polar region. In similar manner there is also a need to verify that bigger trees need higher concentration of Carbon Dioxide than grasses do for it to sufficiently grow.
VII. WIND POWER AND GLOBAL WARMING

7.1 THE NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WIND

Wind is a moving air. Wind is the breathing spell of the earth that regulates temperature on earth’s surface. It is the major vehicle of change in temperature. The movement of air follows two directions; the direction from higher pressure to lower pressure and the gravitational attraction of the earth.

Air movement is generally influenced by Coriolis Effect which is a form of drag or being left behind by the rigid component of the earth as the earth rotates around its axis. It is essentially the Coriolis Effect that makes wind from 300 Latitude on sides of the hemisphere move towards the equator. The rigid surface of the earth at the equator move at the velocity of 465 meters per second while its velocity along the 300 Latitude is at 403 meters per second, which results to a significant difference in the magnitude of drag that causes such air movement towards the equator.

Due to Coriolis Effect, all storms, hurricane and tornadoes in the Northern Hemisphere whirls in a counterclockwise direction and all those at the Southern Hemisphere whirl in a clockwise direction. The presence of a large tract of land such as the continent, which differs from the ocean in the ability to absorb heat, in effect influences the movement of air. Mountain ranges as well as the density of vegetative likewise affect air movement.


7.2 AIR AS A VEHICLE

Air near the equator with temperature of 300C has the ability to contain as much as 3.57 % of water by weight but at the average of 70% humidity, it contains 2.5%. In dehydration and material drying air may be heated at 700C to enhance its capacity to hold water vapor to as much as 6.0% of its weight.

During the dry season near the equator, almost the same amount of water in evaporated everyday but it fall a rain somewhere else. Air carries water to distant places, and unloads it whenever there is an opportunity for it to rise and to expand.

As air travels it carries with a given amount of heat and impart to the cooler air to establish some sort of equilibrium. Absorbs heat and expand when heated. At the instance of expansion, it goes up as being pushed or buoyed by displacement. At higher altitude, it further expands due to lower pressure. Expansion is mechanically losing energy resulting to the cooling of air. When gotten cold it becomes denser and subsequently the earth’s gravitation brings it down.

TABLE OF BEAUFORT SCALE

BFT SEAMAN’S WMO OBSEVED ON
SCALE M/SEC TERM TERM LAND
0. 0.00 - 0.20 Calm Calm Calm, Smoke rises vertically
1. 0.30 - 1.50 Light Light Smoke Drift indicates direction
Vane does not move
.
2. 1.60 – 3.30 Light Light Wind felt on face, leaves rustle,
Breeze Breeze Vanes begins to move

3. 3.40 – 5.40 Gentle Gentle leaves, twigs in constant motion
Breeze Breeze Light flags extended

4 5.50 – 7.90 Moderate. Moderate Dusts, leaves & paper raised up
Breeze Breeze Small branches move

5. 8.00 – 10.70 Freeze Fresh Small trees in leaves begin
Breeze Breeze to sway

6. 10.80 – 13.80 Strong Strong Larger branches of trees in motion
Breeze Breeze whistling hear in wires
7 13,90 – 17.10 Moderate Near Whole trees in motion, Resistance
Gale Gale Felt in walking
8. 17.20 – 20.70 Fresh Gale Twigs and small branches broken off
Gale trees, progress generally impeded

9. 20.80 – 24.40 Strong Strong Slight structural damage occurs, slate
. Gale Gale blown from roofs

10 24.30 – 28.40 Whole Storm Seldom experienced on land, trees
Gale. Broken, uprooted, structure damage

11 28.50 – 32.60 Storm Violent Widespread damage
Storm
12 32.70 – 36.90
13 37.00 – 41.40
14 41.50 – 46.10
15 46.20 – 50.90 Hurricane Hurricane Heavy damage
16 51.00 – 56.00
17 56,10 – 61.20

7.4 PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN AVAILABLE POWER AT BASE 10 MPH

SPEED MPH M/SEC POWER CHANGE
1 0.4444 ---------
2 0.8888 ----------
3 1.3333 ---------
4 1.6667 ---------
5 2.2222 - 88.00
6 2.6667 - 78.00
7 3.1111 - 66.00
8 3.5556 - 41.00
9 3.5000 - 27.00
10 4.4444 0.0000
11 4.8889 +33.00
12 5.3333 +73.00
13 5.7778 +120.00
14 6.2222 +174.00
15 6.6667 +238.00


7.5 WIND POWER FOR WIND MILLS

POWER = 0.5 x D x A x S

Where 0.5 = Arbitrary Constant (Angle of Blade Inclination)
D = Air Density
A = Area of Rotor Disc
S = Cube of Wind Speed


7.5 OTHER DESTRUCTIVE ATMOSPHERIC GASES ATTRIBUTED TO HUMAN INTERVENTION

5.5.1 Ozone Layer Destroyer
Human intellect allowed the supposedly intelligent creature to invent and industrialized the production of dichloro-diflouro carbon “C.Cl2F2” known as Freon or HCFC for Air Conditioning purposes without initially knowing that these gases inhibit the formation of ozone that nature has provided to block ultra-violet radiation.

Other than Freon, Methane gas “CH4” produced from organic matter fermentation by enzymatic and bacterial action likewise contributes to the destruction of ozone layer. The same adverse effect has been found in the case of Carbon Tetrachloride “CCl4” a solvent of many uses such as ink eradicator in drafting activities. Recent studies and scientific investigations showed that massive production of rice as in Thailand results to the production of large amount of rice straw that upon undergoing the decaying process produce methane gas that destroys the ozone layer.


Ultra-violet radiation from the sun which consists of 9.0% of the total energy in solar radiation could cause skin cancer upon direct exposure. Scientists estimated that out of the 9.0% UV receives by the earth from the sun, 8.0% is absorbed by the ozone layer and only one percent reaches the surface of the earth. Should ozone layer be destroyed, the addition of 9.0% equivalent of heat at the ground level would not only accelerate Global Warming but would also mean the addition of 982,076 calories per hour per M2 of the earth surface.

• If and when HCFC will be allowed to accumulate in the atmosphere, the natural process of ozone formation will be reduced and much of ultraviolet rays will be allowed to reach the ground to substantially contribute to global warming and at the same time kill various organisms that are vital to sustain the eco-system. Freon has the molecular weight of 66 or 2.28 times greater than air that could absorb heat much more than carbon dioxide.

• Carbon Tetrachloride “C.Cl4” used as industrial solvent and ink eradicator by neutralization is another destroyer of ozone layer and by virtue of its molecular weight of 152 or greater than air by as 5.26 times that of air is another heat absorber that is many times greater than carbon dioxide.

• Ozone molecules as well as oxygen molecules are similarly made up of atoms of oxygen and they only differ by the fact that oxygen like other gaseous substances exists as diatomic in structure while ozone is made up of three atoms of oxygen. The presence of the molecules of water in the higher layer of the atmosphere that are there after having carried by a current of fluid is provided with a tendency to split into hydroxyl ions and oxygen ions. Two hydroxyl ions recombined each other to for form a water molecule and an ion of oxygen. When three ionic atoms of oxygen bump upon each other, the molecule of ozone is formed. Whenever ultraviolet particles hit ozone, the ozone molecules breaks down into atoms of oxygen and upon recombination oxygen molecules are produced.

• The ultraviolet which is of very short wavelength, at high frequency and much greater energy is reduced to a low frequency upon hitting the ozone molecules and thereby transforming such radiation into one with longer wavelengths and becomes less damaging.

• Water is somewhat a stable substance because the total quantity of positive charge is equal to the total quantity of the negative charge. The positive and negative charges of the atomic or radical ions is also known as the combining power that is commonly known as valences. An oxygen atom has a valence of negative two “-2” but when two oxygen atom combine each other to form a diatomic molecule, they share each other two outermost electrons to make stable molecules. Ozone is formed when three atoms of oxygen share one another two of their respective electrons.

• Ultra violet light is made up of photons or quantum particles with the highest frequency among the visible spectra of light. It is the type of spectrum that carries the highest order of energy from the sun and most damaging one. If it were not for the ozone that blocks ultra violet spectrum it can significantly contribute to Global Warming. Upon hitting ozone, the ultra violet is being absorbed and eventually split the ozone molecule resulting to a recombination of two atoms of oxygen into a diatomic molecule of oxygen.

• In an International Forum held in Tokyo in 1995, an accord to reduce the accumulative deposit of Freon in the atmosphere has been reached. In view of the fact that there would be no traces of evidence to pinpoint and apprehend the violators of the law on such prohibition, the consensus was to increase awareness on the destructive effect of Freon in the atmosphere in all parts of the world.

• In response to the call for cooperation among industrialized and developing countries, Japan took the initiative to recover Freon from air conditioning outfits and have the same burned in a special gadget whereby Freon is disintegrated at 10,000 0C.


7.6 Acid Rain Producer

• The burning of coal, diesel fuel and gasoline produces sulfur dioxide that reacts with hydroxide “-OH” ions to produce sulfuric acid “H2SO4” that contaminate rain water to produce acid rain.


Spruce Forest Damaged by Acid Rain
Forests, lakes, ponds, and other terrestrial and aquatic environments throughout the world are being severely damaged by the effects of acid rain. Acid rain is caused by the combination of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen compounds with water in the atmosphere to produce rain with a very low pH. Normally, rainwater has a pH of 6.5, making it slightly acidic. However, with the addition of sulfur and nitrogen compounds, the pH of rainwater may drop to as low as 2.0 or 3.0, making it dangerously acidic. In addition to chemically burning the leaves of plants, acid rain poisons lake water, which kills most if not all of the aquatic inhabitants.
Steffen Hauser/Oxford Scientific Films
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. © 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.


Volcanic Eruption is caused by heating and melting of sulfur in the underground that makes it flow and accumulate in molten sulfur tables. Upon explosion huge amount of sulfur dioxide is deposited in the atmosphere that eventually fall as acid rain.

Geothermal Plants produces energy by introducing water into the bore hole/pits which is converted into steam that runs the steam engines. Down below the subsoil surface there is sulfur deposits that melt when heated, and incidentally there are sulfur gases that go with the steam and results to acid rain.


Methane
The methane molecule is the simplest example of how a carbon atom can bond to four other atoms to form a tetrahedral shape. The carbon atom sits at the center, with the four hydrogen atoms at the points of the tetrahedron. Carbon’s ability to form four strong bonds is unique among the elements and allows it to form large molecules.
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• Recent development in the process of monitoring Global Warming revealed that massive production of rice and other agricultural crops brings about a significant effect on the build up of global warming due to the formation of Methane Gas in the fermentation and petrifaction of rice straw, corn stalk, wheat stalk and other agricultural wastes. Scientists claimed that the continuous deposit of methane in the atmosphere contributes to the build up of global warming.

• The presence of methane in the atmosphere is in the total amount of 7,297,675,000 tons or the equivalent weight of 7.39 cubic kilometers of water which is 1.761986 parts per million “ppm” of the total amount of the atmosphere.

• The role of Methane Gas in the atmosphere which inhibits the formation of ozone layer falls under the function of a catalyst. It breaks down ozone molecules into oxygen molecules without by itself undergoing any physical change or being consummated, It persists while being accumulated over a long period of time to proliferate its damaging effect.

• The occurrence of lightning and thunderstorm may diminish the existence of methane and other types of alkanes or allephatic compounds in the atmosphere but to insignificant proportion. Other alkane gases include methylene, ethane, ethylene, acetylene, propane, propene, propylene, butane, butene, and butylenes among others.

• Some scientists claimed that Methane Gas persists in the atmosphere for decades until being destroyed or breaks down into its component parts. This Author advanced another new theory on how Methane Gas is sequestered from the atmosphere. The new theory holds that Methane although in a very slow phase reacts with Calcium Hydroxide “Ca(OH)2” to form Calcium Carbonate “CaCO3”

• Calcium Oxide “CaO” or lime partially dissolve in water to form Calcium Hydroxide “Ca (OH)2 “Being partially ionic in structure, it is enhanced with the tendency to react with methane. If it were not for this reaction, there would be more methane than carbon dioxide in the atmosphere considering that carbon dioxide is continuously sequestered by plants while methane is not.


CaO + H2O = Ca (OH)2

Ca (OH)2 + CH4 + O2 = Ca CO3 + H2O




•
• This new theory leads to the explanation why there are large deposits of calcium carbonates in almost all parts of the world.

Internal Structure of the Earth
Seismologists study the way earthquake wave’s travel through the earth to determine the earth’s internal structure. The earth is composed of a series of layers, including the crust, mantle, and inner and outer core. The lithosphere, part of the upper mantle and the crust, is composed of solid rock. Deeper within the earth, the less rigid asthenosphere surrounds the molten lower mantle, the liquid outer core, and the solid inner core.
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Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. © 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
where more canopies, stems and branches of trees are concentrated but in the absence of these factors, the general tendencies of trees grow more branches toward the west and toward the south.





VIII. THE ROLE OF WATER IN CREATION

8.1 WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE

World Precipitation and Average Rainfall
Precipitation plays a major role in determining the climate of an area. Rainfall is critical, in particular, for it replenishes ground water and supplies both natural watershed systems and irrigation channels. Worldwide rainfall averages vary greatly from region to region, as shown here. Areas that receive less than 250 mm (10 in) of rain each year are considered deserts, while regions receiving more than 2000 mm (80 in) are usually termed equatorial or tropic. Average rainfall is determined by the depth of water falling on a flat surface and is measured by a rain gauge.
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In view of the fact that water vapors exist only from ground level to the altitude of 4,300 meters, only 620 Gm/Cm2 contains water which is about 4.0% of the total weight of the atmosphere more particularly along or near the equator.

Weight of H2O in Atmosphere = 620 Gm/Cm2 (0.040)
= 24.80 Gm/Cm2
Water in the Atmosphere exists as water vapor that forms as the humid content of air that ranges from 1.5% to 6.0% of the weight of air. At every rise in temperature the water holding capacity of the atmosphere also increases as defined in the Psychrometric Chart. Percent humidity which ranges from about 60.0% to 100.0% is the actual humid content of atmosphere with respect to maximum amount it can hold and precipitation of water molecules occur at saturation point or 100% humidity. When the atmosphere is 100.0% saturated, water molecules cleave upon each other into fine particles that are becoming visible, which we called as clouds. Particles of clouds may either re-evaporated into invisible molecules or grow into larger particles until it becomes very heavy dark clouds that eventually fall as rain.

The presence of water molecules or water particles that constitute the clouds can only be found at the lower layer of the atmosphere. When precipitation occurs at the ground level, we see them as fogs. Clouds mostly exist below the altitude of 4,300 meters because at this level, the prevailing temperature is 0 0C which is the freezing point of water. Beyond the altitude of 4,300 meters there is practically no more water molecule or water particles. Water therefore exists in about 60% of the total atmosphere that are found below 4,300 meters in altitude.

The temperature of the atmosphere at ground level vary to a wide range of averages from minus zero degree Celsius to 33 0C. Extreme temperatures may be experience at -40 0C at the North Pole and at the South Pole and 47 0C to 49 0C along the Torrid Zone at the equator which exist as heat waves. In the Philippines the normal temperature during the night is in the vicinity of 20 0C and 30 0C at the daytime during rainy season and 24 0C to 34 0C during the dry season.

From 30 0C at ground level, the temperature decreases by 0.7 C0 at every 1,000 meters increase in altitude up to the maximum height of 10,000 meters. Beyond the altitude of 10 kilometers the temperature starts to increase with corresponding increase in height. At the altitude of ten kilometers the temperature of the atmosphere is -40 0C.

Water plays a vital role in regulating the temperature of the earth surface and more particularly its atmosphere. As a gaseous fluid, it has the ability to absorb 0.50 Calories per Gram per degree Celsius rise in temperature and as a liquid, it can absorb one calorie per gram per degree Celsius rise in temperature. As a gaseous fluid, its molecules move much faster upon being heated to occupy more space we perceived as expansion and by becoming lighter it is buoyed to higher elevation to expand further due to lower atmospheric pressure existing at higher altitude. While in the process of expansion, it incurred heat losses in the same manner as the rest of atmospheric material components.

While in the form of liquid in the ocean, it is exposed to sunlight and given the opportunity to absorb huge amount of heat. When water is heated, it becomes easier for the likewise heated air to absorb them that becomes its humid content. When water molecules precipitate, it reduces its volume allowing other gases to expand and to loss their energy content.

In salt beds, water evaporation has been quantified and found to be in the average water thickness of 4.0 mm per day, which amounts to 4.0 liters/M2/day or 4,000 M3/KM2/Day. Evaporation in salt beds is greater than that of the Ocean due to accumulated heat and buildup of temperature inherent in shallow water with black or dark bedding at the bottom. In the Ocean, the quantity of evaporation amounts to the average water thickness of 3.75 mm per day or 3,750 M3/KM2/Day. Annual evaporation of water in the ocean amounts to 1,368.75 mm.


Evaporation of water in inland areas varies to a wide range depending on so many factors, which is higher when the ground is wet, low percent humidity, higher atmospheric temperature and wind velocity. Rainfall in inland areas is much greater than the rain that fall upon the surface of the ocean by virtue of higher inland temperature, emission of oxygen and rugged land feature that enhance upward current of air.

Desert lands can only be found within the vicinity of 300 latitude, on both sides of the equator. There are deserts that exist at the northern hemisphere and there are those in the southern hemisphere. The reason why there are no rainfalls in the deserts is attributed to the fact that aside from the Intercontinental Tropical Convergent Zone ”ITCZ” movement of the atmosphere as influenced by Coriolis Effect, the bulk of the atmospheric materials at the torrid zone has the tendency to rise at higher altitude, expands and precipitates it water contents to fall as rain. When it goes down somewhere at the vicinity of 300 latitude, it becomes empty with humid content while it is slightly compressed so that no precipitation and no rain falls in the deserts.

Water is a universal solvent that composed about 70% of all living organisms. It fluidal property makes it serve as the vehicle of transport of ions, amino acids and protein molecules, of oxygen and carbon dioxide, to allow chemical reactions and formation within the body.


8.2 WATER IN THE OCEAN

Water as liquid component of the ocean continuously moves in a one way direction of underwater current from east to west along the equator by virtue of Coriolis Effect. As the solid and rigid component of the earth rotates around its axis at the speed of 464 meters per second along the earth’s circumference, the liquid component is left behind in the form of drag resulting to apparent water current velocity of about 1.5 meters per second. This underwater current that is found at the equator has a width of about 500 kilometer and 5.0 kilometers in depth. From the continental shelf North America the underwater current hit San Bernardino Strait that divides Bicol from Samar of the Philippines after 6 months and 43 days of travel. The warm water route bends northward passing near Japan and eventually near the ice berg in the North Pole and proceed back to the continental North America to complete the cycle that takes more than a year.

By virtue of the underwater current, the temperature in the North Pole partially increased while the temperature along the equator is partially decreased in a continuous process of mixing the cold and warm water... Water temperature in the ocean is therefore regulated and if it were not for the Coriolis Effect, it will continue to accumulate excessive heat or excessive cooling/freezing.

It must be noted that what has been explained above is the movement of water in the Northern Hemisphere where the Philippines is located which is counter clockwise. At the Southern Hemisphere the movement of underwater current is clockwise. To verify this, you may fill the sink in your kitchen with water by plugging the outlet with a face towel and upon slowly removing the plug, you will observe that the water swirls at the counter clockwise direction as it is drained through the sink. If you do the same in Australia, the water will swirl at the clockwise direction as it is being drained.

The surface of the ocean is affected by tidal current up to the depth of about 50 meters only. Gaspard Coriolis of France discovered this phenomenon in 1835 upon verification when he initially observed that it takes longer time to sail towards the east following the same route than in sailing from west to east.

Some 20,000 years ago, the water in the ocean were deposited and got frozen in the North Pole and in the South Pole and thereby reducing the level of the ocean by as much as 135 M compared to its present level. During the glacial period, there appeared some sorts of land bridges from large island to another and from a given continent to another continent that allowed the migration of large animals from a given island to another. This is cyclic phenomenon that happens every 114,000 years.


8.3 THE ORIGIN OF WATER

The universe has been in existence for about 11.5 billion years before another “Bang” of explosion created our solar system to include planet earth 4.5 billion years ago. It remained a red hot object for about hundreds of million years and the temperature eventually went down to the level that is fit for the existence of life, 3.2 billion years after its emergence. Initially there was not even a drop of water.

A very old question as to why only the earth is the only plant that contains some form of life has in recent decades been explained that it is the only planet where morphogenetic field for life exists.

In the presence of morphogenetic field, it is the only planet where protons and electrons emitted and received by the earth from other stars and exploding Nebula forms into atoms of hydrogen. The hydrogen combined with oxygen to form the first molecule of water on earth. Today, the total amount of water in the ocean is approximated at 891,288,169.23 Km3. . This means that the water in the ocean increases in depth by 1.0 mm every 900 years since the time of the earth creation. It also means that the water in the ocean increases by 6.2762741674 M3 per Second. It also means that 87,984,885,782,112,232 or 87.98 x 1015 atoms of hydrogen are formed every mm2 of the earth’s surface per second.

Surface area of earth = 400,167,499.2481663018 Km2

Ice Cap = 400,167,499.2481663018 Km2 (0.15)
= 60,025,124.8872249453 Km2.
Remaining Area = 340,142,374.3609413565 Km2

Land area = 340,142,374.3609413565 Km2 (29.18%)
= 99,253,544.8385226878 Km2
Ocean Water = 340,142,374.3609413565 Km2 (70.82%)
= 240,888,829.5224186687 Km2

Water Volume = 240,888,829.5224186687 Km2 (3.7 Km)
= 891,288,669.232949074 Km3

891,288,669.232949074 Km3 (109M3/Km3.
Water Formation = -----------------------------------------
(4.5 x 109 yrs) (365.25/Days/Yr.)

283.398622967551374 x 109M3
= (-----------------------------------------)
(4.5 x 109) (365.25)

= 542,270.085471 M3 /Day
= 6.2762741374 M3/Sec

Following this quantitative analysis, it means that 6.2762741374 M3 of water is formed on the surface of the earth every second. This also means that one cubic kilometer of water is being formed and added into the ocean every 5 years and 17.5 days.
2 16 18
Heat of Formation: H2 + ½ O2 = H20

2 60,000 BTU 252 Cal 2.2 Lb
Calories = (------) (---------------) (-----------) (----------) = 3,360,000 Cal/Kg
18 Lb BTU Kg

3,360,000 Cal 6.2762741374 M3 3,600 Sec 24 Hr
Heat Generated = (------------------) (----------------------) (-------------) (----------)
Kg Second Hr. Day
= 1,822,027,487,183.7696/Day
1,822,027,487,183.7696/Day
Equivalent Gasoline heat content = ------------------------------
8,517942 Cal/Liter

= 213,927.263384 Liters/Day

In the manner that water is continuously added into the ocean, it will take 900 years yet before the additional height of one millimeter will be filled. In the next one million years, the level of water will increase to 111.11 millimeters from the present level.

About 1.2 billion years ago the first form of life existed due to the right temperature of the earth together with the existence of morphogenetic field but for the first 600 million years, zoological life forms are impossible to exist due to high concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere that would otherwise suffocate them. About 600 million years ago, zoological life started to emerge out of microscopic plants and multiplied into various species by mutation and adaptation but many of the species became extinct when two meteor fall incidents happened about 240 million years ago and 65 million years ago.

The first human being or biped and erect mammals came to exist only at about 6.5 million years ago when a perfect condition in the metamorphic growth of the earth became an ideal habitat for mankind. However, the adult bipeds that existed 1.5 million years ago have but the skull that contained 350 Cm3 of gray matter which is exactly the same as that of newly born child in our era. The adult human beings in out era have the brain structure that contains 1,350 Cm3 of gray matter consisting of about 85 billion brain cells. This proves that creation is a continuous process and still in progress at this time and up to the distant future. The universe with a diameter of more than 15 billion light years still expands and will continue to expand at the rate of 200,000 kilometers per second. In the absence of water and air, life is impossible.

8.4 THE MOLECULE OF WATER

Water in its liquid form has the smallest volume at 4.0 0C. Water expands when heated above 4.0 0C and also expands when bring cooled below 4.0 0C. One Mole of water has the weight of 18.0 Grams and contains a constant of 6.022 x 1023 molecules according to Italian scientist Amadeo Avogadro (1776 – 1856).

A mole of water, which has a total mass of 18 grams and occupies a volume of 18.0 Cm3 in its liquid state at 4.0 0C, could serve as a reference point by which the diameter of a molecule of water can be determined. If the molecules are arranged as close as possible to each other in a row, there are about 3,257,161 million of such molecules that could fit in between a distance of 1.0 millimeter and 18 grams of water at 4.0 0C subjected to such arrangement would extend to a total distance of 8 round trips between the earth and the sun which are 156 million kilometers from each other.

Side measurement of a cube
containing 18.0 Cm3 = 18 1/3 Cm3
= 2.620741394208 Cm.
Number of molecules in 2.620741394208 Cm. = (6.022x1023)/ 2.620741394208
= 85,361,779.795633400445

Number of molecules in a row of 2.620741394208 Cm.

85,361,779.795633400445
Molecules = (-------------------------------) = 32,571,615/Cm.
2.620741394208
1
Diameter = ----------------------------- = 3.07015786 -8Cm
32,571,615/Cm

If the diameter of a molecule of water is enlarged by 1 trillion times (1012), it will become a sphere with a diameter of 307.015786 meters. On the other hand, 1.0 Cm3 of pure neutron as it is found in the neutron star has been estimated to have a mass of 100 million tons for a density that is 1014 times bigger than that of water.

What would then be the diameter of one particle of neutron with a mass of 1.6749543 x 10 -24 Gm? Mass of proton = 1.67264 x 10-24 Gm

1.6749543 x 10 -24 Gm
V = (---------------------------) = 1.6749543 x 10-38 Cm3
1.0 x 1014 Gm/Cm3

Vol. of Sphere = (r2 Pi) 2r (3/4) = r3 (2) (pi)(3/4)
= 4.712388981 r3

1.6749543 x 10-41 Cm3
r3 = --------------------------- = 3.554476621877873 x 10 -4
4.7122388981

r = 1.52613125727576029 x 10 -14 Cm
d = 3.05226251455152 x 10-14 Cm

At a distance of one Centimeter, there could be 6.55 x 1015 numbers of neutrons that can be put in between. The diameter of water is more than twice a million times greater than that1.0 Cm
N =6.55x1015
Neutron 1.52613125727576029 x 10 -14

Ratio of the diameter of Water to that of Neutron:

3.07015786 -8Cm
Ratio=-------------------------------------= 2.012655 x 106
1.52613125727576029 x 10 -14

If the diameter of water is enlarged to one quadrillion times “1014” it becomes 3,070,157.96 Cm or 30.7015796 Km., and undergoing the same magnitude of enlargement, a neutron will have a diameter of 3.05226251455 Cm.

ENLARGED H2O MOLECULES = 3.07015786 -8Cm (1014)
= 3,070,157.86 Cm
= 30.7015786 Km

Let R as the radius and D as diameter of neutron at one qu4drillion enlargement:




If a molecule of water is enlarged by a trillion (1 x 1012) times, it will form a sphere with a diameter of 307.015786 meters with 8 pieces of neutrons that are 3.05226351 Cm in diameter each and 8 protons having each a diameter of 3.048046 Cm being closely attached to each other at its nucleus at the center and 8 pieces of electrons having a diameter of 2.45992 millimeters each revolve around the nucleus. Two of the revolving electrons could approximately be about 60 meters from the center while six other at 120 meters away from the center. Being part of the molecule of water are two pieces of hydrogen that attached themselves at about 150 meters away from the center which are located 1040 angle apart from each other.

The two hydrogen atoms that attached to be part of the molecule of water ceased to assume the configuration as an atom and losses is properties as hydrogen atom because their respective electrons were fitted into the two vacant slots for electrons to complete the octet rule in the number of outermost electrons. The two protons belonging to each of the two hydrogen atoms revolve around the nucleus together and in unison with their respective electron pairs.

The outermost electrons together with the protruding protons make a billion, billion (1 x 1018) revolutions per second which seemingly transform the whole molecule as if it were a rigid and solid stuff that one molecule can not be superimposed by another molecule. In view of the protruding proton at the outermost layer of the molecule of water, it enhances the molecule with a positive charge.

Water molecule is the only type of molecule that behaves as if it were an atom due to the fact that it is the only type of molecule with but with a single nucleus. Another distinct feature of water molecule that makes it far different from any other atoms or molecule is the fact that it is the only one of its type which outer most particles is made up of protons instead of electrons. By virtue of this distinct feature, water as a molecule exhibits a slightly positive charge inherent in the protons.


8.5 The Art of Rainmaking

The demand of water for domestic use and in farm activities incurs acute shortages during summer and even at the time when the normal start of the rainy season is delayed. The same demand for rain water goes true when the dry season starts much earlier than the normal cycle of the season. To remedy these shortages, scientific researches and discoveries enable man to find a way to induce rainfall even when rain is impossible to fall by natural process.

If you happen to watch a Super-jet plane cruising up in the sky, you will be amazed not by the enormous speed of the aircraft but by a long stretch of smoke-like clouds along the path of the plane. What you actually observe is long line of dark clouds stretching for a length of 40 to 50 kilometers. The flue gas emitted by a jet propelled aircraft is at such high temperature that induce the vigorous expansion of air that results to low pressure and subsequent cooling that induce the existing humid content of air that precipitate into a line of clouds,

Cloud seeding to induce precipitation and rainfall started in the military of the United States in 1949 for purposes of warfare strategy. It soon developed to benefit the farmers when rainy season is delayed. At the start of the experiment made silver iodide was used and it turned out successful but the material used is too expensive. Later, dry ice was used and eventually came out with the cheapest iodized salt powder.

Rainmaking was found effective if and when the condition of the cloud warrants. There must be an optimum density of cloud cover to ascertain that cloud seeding mission will prove successful. The cloud must be that of the stratus-cumulus and must exist at low attitude because cloud existing at high altitude are thinner and contains less water vapor.

There were occasions when rainfall was made available as attributed to the cloud seeding operations. The conduct of cloud seeding however is a cloudy activity because the monitoring of expense is difficult to audit.



8.6 WATER IN TOTAL PERSPECTIVE

8.6.1 LIFE & WATER

8.6.1.1 Water As The Basic Structure Of Living Organisms

• Jelly Fish is more than 99.0% water in bodily composition with no head, anus, brain and even eyes to see the beauty of its love ones but it enjoys the process of sexual reproduction. Without the brain, the jellyfish could sense within the radius of more than 100 kilometer across the medium of nothing but water and detect which part of the sea is warmer and for them to migrate. Even without the brain, if there is water there is sensation, love and emotion and therefore life.

• In cytology, the supply of energy via the nerve transmission system or a network of axons and dendrites is installed in fluidal medium consisting electrolytes in water as main component. Food supply together with agents such adenosine tri-phosphate, adenosine diphosphate etc. and cytoplasmic spare parts are sent via water as medium. In similar manner, the sperm cell travels by swimming a great distance in water just to meet the egg and cleave with each other to form a zygote where life begins. In human propagation, the zygote grows into an embryo, then into a fetus and ultimately to delivery by being suspended in water inside the womb.

• When the earth existed about 4.5 billion years ago or 11.5 billion years after the Big Bang or start of creation, it was red hot and there was not a drop of water on its surface because all oxygen atoms were embedded as part of the rock to form metallic oxides. There was no hydrogen on the earth surface from which water is supposed to form because all the hydrogen atoms that were formed went back to the center as fluid gases which we now recognize as the celestial body we call the sun. Not until water came to exist, there was not any form of life on earth because without water, life is impossible.

• On the average, all living things constitute about 71% water in a similar manner that about 71% of the earth surface area is covered with water.

REQUIREMENT AND VALUE OF WATER

8.6.2.1 Extent of Water Services Rendered

• In the Philippines, only about 60% of the population of those living in urbanized community (3.8 million families) enjoys the water services through water faucets.

• The per capita consumption of potable water in the United States range from 350 liters to 950 liters per day while consumption in the Philippines range from 80 liters to 120 liters per day. The main reason for their bigger per capita consumption is attributed to much larger industrial and manufacturing activities.